International Journal of Infectious Diseases
Volume 13, Issue 5 , Pages 552-559 , September 2009

Understanding transmitted HIV resistance through the experience in the USA

Received 4 June 2008 ,Revised 1 September 2008 ,Accepted 16 October 2008.

References 

  1. Richman DD, Morton SC, Wrin T, Hellmann N, Berry S, Shapiro MF, et al. The prevalence of antiretroviral drug resistance in the United States. AIDS. 2004;18:1393–1401
  2. Smith D, Moini N, Pesano R, Cachay E, Aiem H, Lie Y, et al. Clinical utility of HIV standard genotyping among antiretroviral-naive individuals with unknown duration of infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:456–458
  3. Conlon CP, Klenerman P, Edwards A, Larder BA, Phillips RE. Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 variants associated with zidovudine resistance. J Infect Dis. 1994;169:411–415
  4. Quigg M, Rebus S, France AJ, McMenamin J, Darby G, Leigh Brown AJ. Mutations associated with zidovudine resistance in HIV-1 among recent seroconvertors. AIDS. 1997;11:835–836
  5. Conway B, Montessori V, Rouleau D, Montaner JS, O'Shaughnessy MV, Fransen S, et al. Primary lamivudine resistance in acute/early human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28:910–911
  6. de Ronde A, Schuurman R, Goudsmit J, van den Hoek A, Boucher C. First case of new infection with zidovudine-resistant HIV-1 among prospectively studied intravenous drug users and homosexual men in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. AIDS. 1996;10:231–232
  7. Veenstra J, Schuurman R, Cornelissen M, van’t Wout AB, Boucher CA, Schuitemaker H, et al. Transmission of zidovudine-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 variants following deliberate injection of blood from a patient with AIDS: characteristics and natural history of the virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21:556–560
  8. Johnson VA, Petropoulos CJ, Woods CR, Hazelwood JD, Parkin NT, Hamilton CD, et al. Vertical transmission of multidrug-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and continued evolution of drug resistance in an HIV-1-infected infant. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:1688–1693
  9. Kamkamidze G, Sullivan T, Charbonneau T. Occurrence of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase gene mutation at codon 215 in HIV-infected infants. J Clin Virol. 2001;22:143–148
  10. Bauer G, Colgrove RC, Larussa PS, Pitt J, Welles SL. Antiretroviral resistance in HIV transmitting mothers and their infants. AIDS. 2006;20:1707–1712
  11. Larder BA, Darby G, Richman DD. HIV with reduced sensitivity to zidovudine (AZT) isolated during prolonged therapy. Science. 1989;243:1731–1734
  12. Erice A, Mayers DL, Strike DG, Sannerud KJ, McCutchan FE, Henry K, et al. Brief report: transmitted infection with zidovudine-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type-1. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1163–1165
  13. Peuchant O, Capdepont S, Ragnaud JM, Aurillac-Lavignolle V, Thiébaut R, Fleury H, et al. Primary resistance to enfuvirtide (T20) in recently HIV-1 infected, antiretroviral-naive patients from the ANRS Aquitaine Cohort. Antivir Ther. 2007;12:559–562
  14. Boden D, Hurley A, Zhang L, Cao Y, Guo Y, Jones E, et al. HIV drug resistance in newly infected individuals. JAMA. 1999;282:1135–1141
  15. Little SJ, Daar ES, D’Aquila RT, Keiser PH, Connick E, Whitcomb JM, et al. Reduced antiretroviral drug susceptibility among patients with primary HIV infection. JAMA. 1999;282:1142–1149
  16. Weidle PJ, Ganea CE, Irwin KL, Pieniazek D, McGowan JP, Olivo N, et al. Presence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1, group M, non-B subtypes, Bronx, New York: a sentinel site for monitoring HIV genetic diversity in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:470–475
  17. Parker MM, Gordon D, Reilly A, Horowitz HW, Waters M, Bennett R, et al. Prevalence of drug-resistant and nonsubtype B HIV strains in antiretroviral-naïve. HIV-infected individuals in New York State. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2007;21:644–652
  18. Weinstock HS, Zaidi I, Heneine W, Bennett D, Garcia-Lerma JG, Douglas JM, et al. The epidemiology of antiretroviral drug resistance among drug-naive HIV-1-infected persons in 10 US cities. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:2174–2180
  19. Ross L, Lim ML, Liao Q, Wine B, Rodriguez AE, Weinberg W, et al. Prevalence of antiretroviral drug resistance and resistance-associated mutations in antiretroviral therapy-naïve HIV-infected individuals from 40 United States cities. HIV Clin Trials. 2007;8:1–8
  20. Little SJ, Holte S, Routy JP, Daar ES, Markowitz M, Collier AC, et al. Antiretroviral-drug resistance among patients recently infected with HIV. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:385–394
  21. Weinstock H, Respess R, Heneine W, Petropoulos CJ, Hellmann NS, Luo CC, et al. Prevalence of mutations associated with reduced antiretroviral drug susceptibility among human immunodeficiency virus type 1 seroconverters in the United States, 1993–1998. J Infect Dis. 2000;182:330–333
  22. Grant RM, Hecht FM, Warmerdam M, Liu L, Liegler T, Petropoulos CJ, et al. Time trends in primary HIV-1 drug resistance among recently infected persons. JAMA. 2002;288:181–188
  23. Karchava M, Pulver W, Smith L, Philpott S, Sullivan TJ, Wethers J, et al. Prevalence of drug-resistance mutations and non-subtype B strains among HIV-infected infants from New York State. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;42:614–619
  24. Eshleman SH, Husnik M, Hudelson S, Donnell D, Huang Y, Huang W, et al. Antiretroviral drug resistance, HIV-1 tropism, and HIV-1 subtype among men who have sex with men with recent HIV-1 infection. AIDS. 2007;21:1165–1174
  25. Simon V, Vanderhoeven J, Hurley A, Ramratnam B, Louie M, Dawson K, et al. Evolving patterns of HIV-1 resistance to antiretroviral agents in newly infected individuals. AIDS. 2002;16:1511–1519
  26. Shet A, Berry L, Mohri H, Mehandru S, Chung C, Kim A, et al. Tracking the prevalence of transmitted antiretroviral drug resistant HIV-1. A decade of experience. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;41:439–446
  27. Ross LL, Dix L, Wine B, Vavro C, Horton J, Pappa KA. Changes in regional prevalence, clade, and epidemiology of HIV-1 drug resistance mutations and clade among antiviral therapy-naive patients in the United States from 2000 to 2007. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl):A160
  28. Shafer RW, Rhee S, Pillay D, Miller V, Sandstrom P, Schapiro JM, et al. HIV-1 protease and reverse transcriptase mutations for drug resistance surveillance. AIDS. 2007;21:215–223
  29. Bennett D, Kiuchi M, Rhee SY, Pillay D, Miller V, van de Vijver D, et al. The World Health Organization 2008 list of mutations for surveillance of transmitted drug resistant HIV strains. Abstract 38. 3rd International Workshop on HIV Transmission: Principles of Intervention. July 31–August 2, 2008, Mexico City.
  30. Turner D, Wainberg M. HIV transmission and transmitted drug resistance. AIDS Rev. 2006;8:17–23
  31. de Mendoza C, Rodríguez C, Eiros J, Colomina J, Garcia F, Leiva P, et al. Antiretroviral recommendations may influence the rate of transmission of drug-resistant HIV. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:227–232
  32. Duwe S, Brunn M, Altmann D, Hamouda O, Schmidt B, Walter H, et al. Frequency of genotypic and phenotypic drug-resistant HIV-1 among therapy naive patients of the German seroconverter study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;26:266–273
  33. UK Collaborative Group on Monitoring the Transmission of HIV Drug Resistance. Analysis of prevalence of HIV-1 drug resistance in transmitted infections in the United Kingdom. BMJ. 2001;322:1087–1088
  34. Routy JP, Brenner B, Machouf N, Thomas R, Trottier B, et al. Temporal trend in non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) transmitted drug resistance: relationship with chronically infected potential transmitter population. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl 3):A161
  35. Brenner BG, Roger M, Routy JP, Moisi D, Wainberg MA the Quebec Primary HIV Infection (PHI) Study Group. Impact of clustering on the transmission of HIV-1 variants harbouring drug resistance. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl 3):A163
  36. Truong HM, Klausner JD, Hecht FM, Grant TM. Reduced levels of transmitted resistance to NRTIs in San Francisco is discernable using two independent sentinel populations. Antivir Ther. 2006;11:S115
  37. Hu Z, Giguel F, Hatano H, Reid P, Lu J, Kuritzkes DR. Fitness comparison of thymidine analog resistance pathways in human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol. 2006;80:7020–7027
  38. Turner D, Brenner B, Routy JP, Moisi D, Rosberger Z, Roger M, et al. Diminished representation of HIV-1 variants containing select drug resistance-conferring mutations in primary HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;37:1627–1631
  39. Colgrove RC, Pitt J, Chung PH, Welles SL, Japour AJ. Selective vertical transmission of HIV-1 antiretroviral resistance mutations. AIDS. 1998;12:2281–2288
  40. Martinez-Picado J, Savara AV, Sutton L, D’Aquila RT. Replicative fitness of protease inhibitor-resistant mutants of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol. 1999;73:3744–3752
  41. Yerly S, Jost S, Telenti A, Flepp M, Kaiser L, Chave JP, et al. Infrequent transmission of HIV-1 drug-resistant variants. Antivir Ther. 2004;9:375–384
  42. Leigh Brown AJ, Frost SD, Mathews WC, Dawson K, Hellmann NS, Daar ES, et al. Transmission fitness of drug-resistant human immunodeficiency virus and the prevalence of resistance in the antiretroviral-treated population. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:683–686
  43. de Mendoza C, Rodriguez C, Corral A, del Romero J, Gallego O, Soriano V. Evidence for differences in the sexual transmission efficiency of HIV strains with distinct drug resistance genotypes. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:1231–1238
  44. Wensing AM, van de Vijver DA, Angarano G, Asjö B, Balotta C, Boeri E, et al. Prevalence of drug-resistant HIV-1 variants in untreated individuals in Europe: implications for clinical management. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:958–966
  45. Kashuba AD, Dyer JR, Kramer LM, Raasch RH, Eron JJ, Cohen MS. Antiretroviral-drug concentrations in semen: implications for sexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999;43:1817–1826
  46. Lafeuillade A, Solas C, Halfon P, Chadapaud S, Hittinger G, Lacarelle B. Differences in the detection of three HIV-1 protease inhibitors in non-blood compartments: clinical correlations. HIV Clin Trials. 2002;3:27–35
  47. Solas C, Lafeuillade A, Halfon P, Chadapaud S, Hittinger G, Lacarelle B. Discrepancies between protease inhibitor concentrations and viral load in reservoirs and sanctuary sites in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47:238–243
  48. Venturi G, Catucci M, Romano L, Corsi P, Leoncini F, Valensin PE, et al. Antiretroviral resistance mutations in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase and protease from paired cerebrospinal fluid and plasma samples. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:740–745
  49. Ghosn J, Viard JP, Katlama C, de Almeida M, Tubiana R, Letourneur F, et al. Evidence of genotypic resistance diversity of archived and circulating viral strains in blood and semen of pre-treated HIV infected men. AIDS. 2004;18:447–457
  50. Chakraborty H, Helms RW, Sen PK, Cohen MS. Estimating correlation by using a general linear mixed model: evaluation of the relationship between the concentration of HIV-1 RNA in blood and semen. Stat Med. 2003;22:1457–1464
  51. Liuzzi G, Chirianni A, Zaccarelli M, Zinzi D, Esposito V, Guadagnino V, et al. Differences between semen and plasma of nucleoside reverse transcriptase resistance mutations in HIV-infected patients, using a rapid assay. In Vivo. 2004;18:509–512
  52. Tirado G, Jove G, Kumar R, Noel RJ, Reyes E, Sepulveda G, et al. Compartmentalization of drug resistance-associated mutations in a treatment-naive HIV-infected female. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2004;20:684–686
  53. Zhang H, Dornadula G, Beumont M, Livornese L, Van Uitert B, Henning K, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the semen of men receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1803–1809
  54. Delobel P, Sandres-Sauné K, Cazabat M, L’Faqihi FE, Aquilina C, Obadia M, et al. Persistence of distinct HIV-1 populations in blood monocytes and naive and memory CD4 T cells during prolonged suppressive HAART. AIDS. 2005;19:1739–1750
  55. Smith DM, Wong JK, Shao H, Hightower GK, Mai SH, Moreno JM, et al. Long-term persistence of transmitted HIV drug resistance in male genital tract secretions: implications for secondary transmission. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:356–360
  56. Wei X, Decker J, Wang S, Hui H, Kappes JC, Wu X, et al. Antibody neutralization and escape by HIV-1. Nature. 2003;422:307–312
  57. Cheng-Mayer C, Brown A, Harouse J, Luciw P, Mayer A. Selection for neutralization resistance of the simian/human immunodeficiency virus SHIVSF33A variant in vivo by virtue of sequence changes in the extracellular envelope glycoprotein that modify N-linked glycosylation. J Virol. 1999;73:5294–5300
  58. Ghosn J, Pellegrin I, Goujard C, Deveau C, Viard JP, Galimand J, et al. HIV-1 resistant strains acquired at the time of transmitted infection massively fuel the cellular reservoir and persist for lengthy periods of time. AIDS. 2006;20:159–170
  59. Barbour JD, Hecht FM, Wrin T, Liegler TJ, Ramstead CA, Busch MP, et al. Persistence of multidrug-resistant HIV-1 in primary infection leading to superinfection. AIDS. 2004;18:1653–1660
  60. Yerly S, Junier T, Boffi E, Gunthard HF, Zdobnov E, Hirschel B, et al. Drug resistance in newly HIV diagnosed individuals: transmission rate, clusters and persistence. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl 3):A167
  61. Deeks SG, Wrin T, Liegler T, Hoh R, Hayden M, Barbour JD, et al. Virologic and immunologic consequences of discontinuing combination antiretroviral-drug therapy in HIV-infected patients with detectable viremia. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:472–480
  62. Garcia-Lerma JG, Nidtha S, Blumoff K, Weinstock H, Heneine W. Increased ability for selection of zidovudine resistance in a distinct class of wild-type HIV-1 from drug-naive persons. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98:13907–13912
  63. Baraboutis IG, Papastamopoulos V, Georgiou O, Skoutelis AT. Revertant multiresistant HIV in chronically infected drug naïve patients: when baseline resistance testing is not enough. Int J STD AIDS. 2007;18:722
  64. Gandhi RT, Wurcel A, Rosenberg ES, Johnston MN, Hellmann N, Bates M, et al. Progressive reversion of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 resistance mutations in vivo after transmission of a multiply drug-resistant virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:1693–1698
  65. Descamps D, Calvez V, Izopet J, Buffet-Janvresse C, Schmuck A, Colson P, et al. Prevalence of resistance mutations in antiretroviral-naive chronically HIV-infected patients in 1998: a French nationwide study. AIDS. 2001;15:1777–1782
  66. Imrie A, Carr A, Duncombe C, Finlayson R, Vizzard J, Law M, et al. Primary infection with zidovudine-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 does not adversely affect outcome at 1 year. Sydney Primary HIV Infection Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1996;174:195–198
  67. Little SJ, Grant RM, Daar ES, Markowitz M, Hecht FM, Johnson V, et al. Transmitted NNRTI drug resistance is associated with higher steady state viral load measures in untreated subjects with primary HIV infection. Poster 49. 12th International HIV Drug Resistance Workshop. June 2004, Tenerife.
  68. Bezemer D, Jurriaans S, Prins M, van der Hoek L, Prins JM, de Wolf F, et al. Declining trend in transmission of drug-resistant HIV-1 in Amsterdam. AIDS. 2004;18:1571–1577
  69. de Mendoza C, Ortiz M, Pérez-Hoyos S, Corral A, García-Saínz A, del Amo J, et al. Impact of transmission of drug-resistant HIV strains on viral load, CD4 counts and CD4 decline in recent seroconverters. Poster 81. 12th International Workshop on HIV Drug Resistance. June 2003, Los Cabos.
  70. Chan KC, Galli RA, Montaner JS, Harrigan PR. Prolonged retention of drug resistance mutations and rapid disease progression in the absence of therapy after primary HIV infection. AIDS. 2003;17:1256–1258
  71. Markowitz M, Boden D. Multidrug-resistant, dual-tropic HIV-1 and rapid progression. Lancet. 2005;365:1924
  72. Wensing AM, van de Vijver DA, Vercauteren J, Albert J, Bratt G, Clumeck N, et al. Comparative disease progression observed in newly diagnosed patients infected with drug resistant and susceptible virus: no signs for increased virulence. 3rd International AIDS Society Meeting. July 2005, Rio de Janeiro.
  73. Poggensee G, Kucherer C, Werning J, Somogyi S, Bieniek B, Dupke S, et al. Impact of transmission of drug-resistant HIV on the course of infection and the treatment success. Data from the German HIV-1 Seroconverter Study. HIV Med. 2007;8:511–519
  74. Pillay D, Bhaskaran K, Jurriaans S, Prins M, Masquelier B, Dabis F, et al. The impact of transmitted drug resistance on the natural history of HIV infection and response to first-line therapy. AIDS. 2006;20:21–28
  75. Borroto-Esoda K, Waters JM, Bae AS, Harris JL, Hinkle JE, Quinn JB, et al. Baseline genotype as a predictor of virological failure to emtricitabine or stavudine in combination with didanosine and efavirenz. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2007;23:988–995
  76. Violin M, Cozzi-Lepri A, Velleca R, Vincenti A, D’Elia S, Chiodo F, et al. Risk of failure in patients with 215 HIV-1 revertants starting their first thymidine analog-containing highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2004;18:227–235
  77. Kuritzkes DR, Lalama CM, Ribaudo HJ, Marcial M, Meyer WA, Shikuma C, et al. Preexisting resistance to non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors predicts virologic failure of an efavirenz-based regimen in treatment-naive HIV-1-infected subjects. J Infect Dis. 2008;197:867–870
  78. Oette M, Kaiser R, Daumer M, Petch R, Fatkenheuer G, Carls H, et al. Primary HIV drug resistance and efficacy of first-line antiretroviral therapy guided by resistance testing. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;41:573–581
  79. Department of Health and Human Services. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. DHHS; 2008. Available at: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf (accessed December 2008).
  80. Hirsch MS, Brun-Vezinet F, Clotet B, Conway B, Kuritzkes DR, D’Aquila RT, et al. Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1: 2003 recommendations of an international AIDS Society-USA Panel. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:113–128
  81. Sax PE, Islam R, Walensky RP, Losina E, Weinstein MC, Goldie SJ, et al. Should resistance testing be performed for treatment-naive HIV-infected patients? A cost-effectiveness analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1316–1323
  82. Vicenti I, Razzolini F, Saladini F, Romano L, Zazzi M. Use of peripheral blood DNA for genotype antiretroviral resistance testing in drug-naive HIV-infected subjects. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1657–1661
  83. Johnson JA, Li JF, Wei X, Lipscomb J, Irlbeck D, Craig C, et al. Minority HIV-1 drug resistance mutations are present in antiretroviral treatment-naive populations and associate with reduced treatment efficacy. PLoS Med. 2008;5(7):e158
  84. Hare CB, Mellors J, Krambrink A, Su Z, Skiest D, Margolis DM, et al. Detection of nonnucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor-resistant HIV-1 after discontinuation of virologically suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47(3):421–424
  85. Flys TS, Donnell D, Mwatha A, Nakabiito C, Musoke P, Mmiro F, et al. Persistence of K103N-containing HIV-1 variants after single-dose nevirapine for prevention of HIV-1 mother-to-child transmission. J Infect Dis. 2007;195(5):711–715
  86. Palmer S, Maldarelli F, Wiegand A, Bernstein B, Hanna GJ, Brun SC, et al. Low-level viremia persists for at least 7 years in patients on suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(10):3879–3884
  87. Paredes R, Lalama C, Ribaudo H, Schackman, B; Shikuma, C, Meyer W, et al. Presence of minor populations of Y181C mutants detected by allele-specific PCR (ASPCR) and risk of efavirenz failure in treatment-naïve patients: results of an ACTG A5095 case-cohort study. Abstract 83. Program and abstracts of the 15th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. February 3–6, 2008, Boston, Massachusetts.
  88. Bennet DE, Myatt M, Bertagnolio S, Sutherland D, Gilks C. Recommendations for surveillance of transmitted resistance in countries scaling up antiretroviral treatment. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl 2):25–36
  89. Blower S, Brodine E, Kahn J, McFarland W. The antiretroviral rollout and drug-resistant HIV in Africa: insights from empirical data and theoretical models. AIDS. 2005;19:1–14
  90. Aghokeng AF, Vergne L, Atem-Tambe A, Tongo M, Peyou MN, Butel C, et al. Evaluation of transmitted HIV drug resistance using the WHO HIV drug resistance threshold survey model in four Central African countries. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl 3):A149
  91. Pillay V, Ledwaba J, Hunt G, Rakgotho M, Singh B, Makubalo L, et al. Antiretroviral drug resistance surveillance among drug-naive HIV-1-infected individuals in Gauteng Province. South Africa in 2002 and 2004. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl 2):101–107
  92. Maphalala G, Okello V, Mndzebele S, Gwebu P, Mulima N, Dlamini S, et al. Surveillance of transmitted HIV drug resistance in the Manzini-Mbabane corridor, Swaziland, in 2006. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl 2):95–100
  93. Abegaz WE, Grossman Z, Wolday D, Ram D, Kaplan J, Sibide K, et al. Threshold survey evaluating transmitted HIV drug resistance among public antenatal clinic clients in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl 2):89–94
  94. Kamoto K, Aberle-Grasse J Malawi HIV Drug Resistance Task Force. Surveillance of transmitted HIV drug resistance with the World Health Organization threshold survey method in Lilongwe, Malawi. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl 2):83–87
  95. Somi GR, Kibuka T, Diallo K, Tuhuma T, Bennett DE, Yang C, et al. Surveillance of transmitted HIV drug resistance among women attending antenatal clinics in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Antivir Ther. 2008;13(Suppl 2):77–82
  96. Ndembi N, Lyagoba F, Nanteza B, Kushemererwa G, Serwanga J, Katongole-Mbidde E, et al. Transmitted antiretroviral drug resistance surveillance among newly HIV type 1-diagnosed women attending an antenatal clinic in Entebbe, Uganda. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2008;24:889–895
  97. Brenner BG, Roger M, Routy JP, Moisi D, Ntemgwa M, Matte C, et al. High rates of forward transmission events after acute/early HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis. 2007;195:951–959
  98. Pernas M, Casado C, Fuentes R, Pérez-Elías MJ, López-Galíndez C. A dual superinfection and recombination within HIV-1 subtype B 12 years after primoinfection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;42:12–18
  99. Quinn TC, Wawer MJ, Sewankambo N, Serwadda D, Li C, Wabwire-Mangen F, et al. for the Rakai Project Study Group Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:921–929
  100. Tovanabutra S, Robison V, Wongtrakul J, Sennum S, Suriyanon V, Kingkeow D, et al. Male viral load and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 subtype E in northern Thailand. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;29:275–283
  101. Barreiro P, del Romero J, Leal M, Hernando V, Asencio R, de Mendoza C, et al. Natural pregnancies in HIV-serodiscordant couples receiving successful antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43:324–326
  102. Hammer SM, Eron JJ, Reiss P, Schooley RT, Thompson MA, Walmsley S, et al. Antiretroviral treatment of adult HIV infection: 2008 recommendations of the International AIDS Society-USA panel. JAMA. 2008;300(5):555–570

PII: S1201-9712(08)01734-7

doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2008.10.008

International Journal of Infectious Diseases
Volume 13, Issue 5 , Pages 552-559 , September 2009

Article Tools