Summary
Objectives
This study represents a comprehensive assessment of differences between participants in an HIV/AIDS prevention program (SHAPE: Sustainability, Hope, Action, Prevention, Education) and non-participants in knowledge, attitudes and practices with a focus on cultural, sociological and economic variables.
Methods
We developed an eight-page questionnaire that was administered to 933 randomly selected students at the University of Zimbabwe. Survey items addressed sexual decision-making, condom use, limiting sexual partners, cultural power dynamics and access to HIV testing.
Results
Results show participants are statistically more likely to report being sexually abstinent, and understand the prevention benefits of condom use. SHAPE members had fewer sexual partners in the previous year than non-SHAPE members (1.4 vs. 2.2). SHAPE members were significantly more likely (67%) than non-SHAPE respondents (48%) to indicate that they knew their HIV sero-status and to state that they knew their status because they had been tested (85% vs. 71%).
Discussion
Though we found differences between the groups suggesting that program participation increases awareness concerning gender equity, there continue to be many intractable cultural attitudes in this age group. Findings suggest that the attitudes and practices of young men and women are changing, but that progress in some areas does not assure progress in all areas.
Keywords
Introduction
Planning and implementing effective HIV prevention programs in southern Africa requires ongoing assessments of knowledge, attitudes and practices that are sensitive to African culture and gender roles. The intractable spread of HIV infection in Zimbabwe is most certainly a product of multiple variables including attitudes about gender roles,
1
, 2
spiritual beliefs,Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Report on the global HIV/AIDS epidemic 2002. Geneva: UNAIDS; July 2002. Retrieved October 6, 2003. from: http://www.unaids.org/Unaids/EN/Resources/Epidemiology/EPI_Recent_Publications.asp.
3
lack of recreational outlets,4
attitudes concerning procreation,5
gender differences in negotiation skills,6
knowledge about effectiveness of condoms7
and perceived self-efficacy.8
In planning interventions for university-aged program participants, changing attitudes, particularly related to gender and culture, may be more salient than improving knowledge if long-term behavior change is the goal.9
The purpose of this study was to examine HIV prevention-related risk factors among University of Zimbabwe students. We assessed knowledge, attitudes and practices with a particular focus on cultural, sociological and economic variables such as attitudes about sharing power, feminism and women's dependence on men for income. We also used measures of traditional risk factors such as abstinence, condom use and limiting sexual partners. The results of this study are intended to inform program planning and development for HIV prevention education interventions designed for southern Africans in the 18- to 24-year-old age group.
An examination of risk assessment studies focusing on African youth reveals wide variability in risk-factor related knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, and very few studies isolating the 18- to 24-year-old age group.
10
, 11
There are four HIV prevention studies specific to African university students8
, 12
, 13
, 14
and one study that specifically addresses sexual behavior and condom use among youth in Zimbabwe.7
From these and other studies that examine university-aged cohorts, there are limited comparative data available about behavior among Zimbabwe's university-aged students.Published data suggest at least 50% of college students have been sexually active since the age of 16.
15
, 16
High-risk sexual behavior is common among the university-aged group with studies showing a range of condom use from 4% of women and 15% of men using condoms during their last encounter17
to 35% of both men and women indicating they always use condoms.8
Few survey respondents in one study identified themselves as high risk and most (92%) were sexually experienced.14
Few African countries can show significant gains in slowing the AIDS epidemic and though there is an increasing number of well designed prevention interventions, only a few can claim effectiveness in reducing risk-taking behavior or the ability to generalize their findings to other populations.
10
, 15
There is general agreement about the primary risk factors that are responsible for the intractable rate of HIV infections.11
However, there is also acknowledgment that there is considerable variability in which factors are most critical for reducing risks for select ages or groups. Condom use, for example, varies considerably according to age,8
, 18
job classification,19
perceived risk,15
socio-economic status20
and access to information.7
, 16
, 21
Although lack of gender equity is broadly acknowledged as a primary risk factor, assessment of the contribution of this variable differs according to economics5
, 22
and cultural beliefs about gender roles.20
, 22
It is clear that knowledge alone, about the roles of abstinence, condoms and limiting the number of sexual partners, is far from sufficient and that effectively preventing HIV requires a comprehensive, multi-faceted program framework.
23
This study assesses knowledge, attitudes and practices that can be influenced by education and peer counseling. SHAPE Zimbabwe (Sustainability, Hope, Action, Prevention, Education), a non-governmental organization dedicated to promoting health and preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS through teaching, research, mentoring and advocacy for gender equity in sub-Saharan Africa, sponsored this study. SHAPE's goals include improving university- and school-aged youth STD prevention capabilities through training programs, clubs, workshops, networking, and shared learning. SHAPE offers numerous educational opportunities including week-long seminars for training peer counselors and teaching life skills, gender equity workshops, “Talk Shows” (topical seminars) and clubs including sports teams. SHAPE also sponsors an interdenominational Christian Fellowship, a music association and service learning teams that visit orphanages, sponsor environmental clean-up campaigns and organize campus recreational events.Methods
A questionnaire was developed that included variables addressing attitudes and beliefs concerning sexual decision making between men and women, condom use, limiting sexual partners and access to HIV testing. Knowledge and behavior were also assessed concerning access to condoms, gender sensitivity and safer sexual practices. In addition to using standardized, validated items from commonly used research instruments such as those provided by the United States Agency for International Development and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, we developed items assessing student knowledge of SHAPE program offerings, student life conditions on campus and less traditional risk factors such as cultural and gender sensitive variables described in the literature review. This eight-page questionnaire with 51 questions and 365 response choices was then administered by trained student interviewers to 933 randomly selected students of approximately 14 000 students at the University of Zimbabwe.
Ten male and female student interviewers were recruited and offered a modest stipend to participate in interviewer training techniques. The interviewers completed an eight-hour training session conducted by experienced survey researchers from the Department of Population Studies at the University. Training of interviewers included discussion of research ethics and data privacy, script review and practice and discussion about ideas for promoting the survey. Interviews were conducted in the respondent's preferred language (Shona or English).
The survey developers reviewed all questionnaire items with the trainees, emphasized the importance of not deviating from scripts or items, explained questionnaire skip patterns and demonstrated how to deal with multiple responses and how to ask clarifying questions. Pilots of the semi-structured interviews indicated that they could last between 30 and 120 minutes with a typical interview lasting 45 minutes. Nearly all interviewees preferred English. Questionnaires were placed in sealed envelopes by the interviewer immediately upon completion.
Each of the ten trained interviewers was given a goal of approaching 100 students to participate in the survey. Interviewers were assigned different ‘faculties’ (academic departments) and positioned themselves outside campus buildings at times when students were released from classes. The survey was to be administered by approaching every other student who exited a building and offering either a survey interview or self-administered questionnaire option. All students approached were advised that they could complete the survey independently and could quit the interview at any time, but were also advised that because there were skip patterns it would be most expedient to be interviewed. The interviewer's scripted introductions included clear assurances of confidentiality and use of non-identifier data.
We secured 933 completed questionnaires from about 1,100 students approached, a response rate of approximately 85%. A definitive response rate calculation is not possible due to variation among interviewers regarding why they did not reach their goal of 100 students with several interviewers neglecting to record refusals to participate. The type of refusals most commonly reported related to final exams week with students feeling pressed for study time. Accordingly, we were short of our planned 1,000 surveys administered because some interviewers did not allocate enough time during the two-week time frame for reaching their goal of 100 students before finals ended. Nevertheless, this relatively high willingness to participate and discuss sexual issues with peer interviewers is consistent with other such survey work SHAPE has conducted at the University.
We analyzed survey results using SAS software to compute descriptive and comparative data, prevalence rates and associated confidence intervals. We examined statistical variations to determine the magnitude of male and female differences. Because this is a cross-sectional study, we avoided causal inferences, however, our analysis did include examination of correlated and confounding variables such as age, field of study, years at the University and gender. All statistical tests were two sided and when applicable, linear trend tests were used to assess the contribution of variables of key interest.
Results
Characteristics of the sample
Our total sample was drawn from the approximately 14 000 students matriculating at the University of Zimbabwe campus in Harare. We defined SHAPE ‘members’ as those who said yes to our item “Are you a SHAPE participant?” and indicated that they participated in at least one SHAPE activity. Alternatively, respondents were marked as SHAPE ‘members’ if they indicated that they participated in two or more SHAPE activities, even though they may not have answered the question about being a SHAPE participant affirmatively. As can be seen in Table 1, the vast majority of students we interviewed were between 20 and 24 years of age with no significant differences between SHAPE members and non-SHAPE respondents. The clear majority of the students had never been married and were fairly evenly spread across the first- to fourth-years with SHAPE members having slightly more second-year students and non-SHAPE respondents having more first-year students, differences that were not statistically significant. Respondents were the same regarding parental death status with 27% of non-SHAPE respondents and 26% of SHAPE members with one dead parent and 7% of non-SHAPE respondents and 8% of SHAPE members who had lost both parents.
Table 1Demographics.
| Question | SHAPE (n = 251) | Non-SHAPE (n = 618) |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Age group | missing = 9 | missing = 35 |
| 15 to 19 | 14 (5.8%) | 34 (5.8%) |
| 20 to 24 | 210 (86.8%) | 502 (86.1%) |
| 25 to 29 | 16 (6.6%) | 39 (6.7%) |
| ≥30 | 2 (0.8%) | 8 (1.4%) |
| 2. Sex | ||
| Male | 135 (53.8%) | 346 (56.0%) |
| 3. Parental death status | ||
| Both parents dead | 21 (8.4%) | 44 (7.2%) |
| One parent dead | 65 (26.0%) | 164 (26.7%) |
| Neither parent dead/both alive | 164 (65.6%) | 407 (66.2%) |
| 4. Marital status | ||
| Never married | 215 (87.0%) | 530 (86.2%) |
| Widowed | 1 (0.4%) | 2 (0.3%) |
| Divorced/separated | 4 (1.6%) | 6 (1.0%) |
| Living together | 13 (5.3%) | 25 (4.1%) |
| Married | 14 (5.7%) | 52 (8.5%) |
| 5. Year | ||
| 1st | 52 (20.7%) | 163 (26.5%) |
| 2nd | 104 (41.4%) | 219 (35.6%) |
| 3rd | 67 (26.7%) | 142 (23.0%) |
| 4th | 28 (11.2%) | 87 (14.1%) |
| 5th | 0 (0.0%) | 5 (0.8%) |
Missing responses of less than 5% are not reported.
Differences in sexual decision-making
There were statistically significant differences as well as remarkable similarities between SHAPE program members and non-SHAPE respondents related to sexual risk taking and decision-making as can be seen in Table 2. More non-SHAPE respondents (85%) than SHAPE members (79%) report that they have “ever had sex,” a difference that is statistically significant (p < 0.05). However, it is not statistically significant (p > 0.05) that of those who had had sex, more non-SHAPE respondents (68%) than SHAPE members (60%) reportedly used a condom the last time they had sex. Of those using a condom, SHAPE and non-SHAPE respondents are the same with 70% of both groups indicating that they “always” use a condom and no one in either group saying they never use a condom. Of those who have ever had sex, there was no difference between groups in the average number of sexual partners in the last month with both groups reporting a mean of one partner. There was, however, a significant difference (p < 0.05) between respondents who have ever had sex concerning the mean number of sexual partners in the past year with SHAPE members indicating a mean of 1.4 partners and non-SHAPE respondents reporting a mean of 2.2 partners.
Table 2Comparison of SHAPE and non-SHAPE members on sexual issues.
| Question | SHAPE (n = 251) | Non-SHAPE (n = 618) |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Ever had sex | ||
| Yes | 191 (78.6%) | 512 (85.2%) |
| 2. Of those who had sex, used condom last time had sex | missing = 98 | missing = 243 |
| Yes | 56 (60.2%) | 182 (67.7%) |
| 3. Of those using a condom, how often a condom is used | ||
| Always | 40 (70.2%) | 127 (69.0%) |
| Sometimes | 17 (29.8%) | 57 (31.0%) |
| 4. Of those who have ever had sex, mean (±SD) number of sex partners in past year | missing = 99 | missing = 246 |
| 1.4 ± 1.3 | 2.2 ± 3.8 | |
Missing responses of less than 5% are not reported.
a Variable significance at p ≤ 0.05.
Differences in attitudes toward sexuality and equal rights
SHAPE members and non-SHAPE respondents differ significantly (p < 0.001) in their reporting of who normally initiates condom use with more SHAPE members (57%) than non-SHAPE respondents (47%) indicating the male partner initiates (Table 3). Related to this, when asked if it is easy for a female to initiate condom use, more SHAPE members (40%) than non-SHAPE respondents (29%) disagree that it is easy. Concerning the reasons women may or may not find it easy to initiate condom use, SHAPE members differ significantly from non-SHAPE members with a higher likelihood of identifying equal rights in sexual decision making (30% vs. 21%) and cultural unacceptability (30% vs. 19%) as mitigating factors. Table 3 summarizes other findings related to attitudes about women's power to say no to sex.
Table 3Comparison of SHAPE and non-SHAPE members on attitudes toward sexuality and equal rights.
| Question | SHAPE (n = 251) | Non-SHAPE (n = 618) |
|---|---|---|
| 1. In your opinion, who normally initiates condom use among sexual partners? | ||
| Male partner | 138 (56.6%) | 284 (47.0%) |
| Female partner | 69 (28.3%) | 208 (34.4%) |
| Both | 28 (11.5%) | 107 (17.7%) |
| Don’t know | 9 (3.7%) | 5 (0.8%) |
| 2. It is easy for a female to initiate condom use | ||
| Strongly agree | 40 (16.4%) | 89 (14.6%) |
| Agree | 71 (29.1%) | 203 (33.3%) |
| Disagree | 97 (39.8%) | 176 (28.9%) |
| Strongly disagree | 11 (4.5%) | 48 (7.9%) |
| Don’t know | 25 (10.2%) | 93 (15.3%) |
| 3. Reasons it is or is not easy for a female to initiate condom use | ||
| 3-1. Equal rights | ||
| Yes | 49 (30.2%) | 84 (20.6%) |
| 3-2. Culturally unacceptable | ||
| Yes | 49 (29.9%) | 79 (19.3%) |
| 3-3. Women are shy | ||
| Yes | 42 (26.4%) | 79 (19.8%) |
| 3-4. Women are afraid of being labeled/stigmatised | ||
| Yes | 43 (25.6%) | 96 (23.5%) |
| 3-5. Other women do not have power to resist unprotected sex | ||
| Yes | 24 (15.7%) | 88 (22.0%) |
| 4. When a woman says “No” to a sexual advance, it means “No” | missing = 13 | missing = 20 |
| Strongly agree | 95 (39.9%) | 183 (30.6%) |
| Agree | 42 (17.6%) | 102 (17.1%) |
| It depends | 85 (35.7%) | 264 (44.2%) |
| Disagree | 10 (4.2%) | 25 (4.2%) |
| Strongly disagree | 6 (2.5%) | 24 (4.0%) |
| 5. Women who expect to share power with men are radicals | missing = 13 | missing = 29 |
| Yes | 71 (29.8%) | 235 (39.9%) |
| No | 167 (70.2%) | 353 (59.9%) |
| Don’t know | 0 (0.0%) | 1 (0.2%) |
Missing responses of less than 5% are not reported.
a Variable significance at p ≤ 0.001.
b Variable significance at p ≤ 0.01.
c Variable significance at p ≤ 0.05.
Differences in knowledge and behavior concerning safer sex
There are marked and statistically significant differences between SHAPE members and non-SHAPE respondents with respect to knowledge and behavior in sexual decision-making (Table 4). When asked if they have ever seen a female condom, many more SHAPE members (86%) than non-SHAPE respondents (69%) answered yes (p < 0.0001). There was no difference between groups concerning having seen a male condom with 97% of both groups indicating they had seen one. SHAPE members were significantly different than non-SHAPE participants regarding whether they have had conversations or information about AIDS in the past month. Table 4 summarizes variables related to abstinence and conversing about AIDS.
Table 4Comparison of SHAPE and non-SHAPE members on knowledge and behavior.
| Question | SHAPE (n = 251) | Non-SHAPE (n = 618) |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Have you ever seen a male condom? | ||
| Yes | 234 (97.1%) | 582 (96.7%) |
| 2. Have you ever seen a female condom? | ||
| Yes | 208 (86.0%) | 412 (68.6%) |
| 3. Have you ever had any conversation or information about AIDS in the past month? | ||
| Yes | 229 (95.0%) | 508 (83.4%) |
| 4. Since you have known of HIV/AIDS, have you changed your sexual behavior? | missing = 14 | missing = 47 |
| Yes | 86 (36.3%) | 231 (40.5%) |
| No | 31 (13.1%) | 119 (20.8%) |
| Did not have to (abstinent) | 120 (50.6%) | 219 (38.4%) |
| Other | 0 (0.0%) | 2 (0.4%) |
| 5. How can one delay the progression from HIV to AIDS? | ||
| Use of condoms every time one has sex | 123 (51.5%) | 229 (38.2%) |
| Treatment of opportunistic infections | 132 (55.2%) | 220 (36.7%) |
| Prevention of opportunistic infections | 116 (48.7%) | 201 (33.5%) |
| Getting treatment for HIV/AIDS | 69 (28.9%) | 93 (15.5%) |
| Reduce sexual partners | 60 (25.1%) | 104 (17.3%) |
Missing responses of less than 5% are not reported.
a Variable significance at p ≤ 0.001.
b Variable significance at p ≤ 0.01.
c Variable significance at p ≤ 0.05.
Knowledge of only one HIV prevention risk factor was statistically different between groups with SHAPE members more likely (85%) to name abstinence as a prevention practice than non-SHAPE respondents (76%). SHAPE members were significantly more likely than non-SHAPE respondents to know that using caesarean sections for delivery, avoiding breast-feeding if HIV positive and using nevirapine can reduce parent-to-child transmission of HIV. The groups did not differ significantly in knowledge about the effects of sex during pregnancy or use of drugs or traditional medicine on parent-to-child transmission.
In nearly all of our questions related to how to delay the progression from HIV to AIDS, SHAPE members were more knowledgeable than non-SHAPE respondents and the differences were statistically significant. As shown in Table 4, SHAPE members were much more likely to know to get treatment if one has AIDS, to use condoms every time one has sex, to prevent and treat opportunistic infections and to reduce the number of sexual partners.
Differences in knowledge and behavior in voluntary counseling and testing
SHAPE members were significantly more likely (67%) than non-SHAPE respondents (48%) to indicate that they knew their HIV sero-status and to state that they knew their status because they had been tested (85% vs. 71%). Related to this, SHAPE members are much less likely (12%) than non-SHAPE respondents (24%) to say that they know their sero-status because they “suspect so”. SHAPE members were also more likely to report they would like to be tested for HIV given the right conditions such as proper counseling and confidentiality. Indicative of their understanding that knowing one's HIV status provides important prevention information, SHAPE members were significantly less likely than non-SHAPE respondents to indicate that they would only go for testing if “it won’t impact negatively on my life” or if “there is a cure”. When asked whether they thought it was necessary for students to know their status, significantly more SHAPE members (92%) than non-SHAPE respondents (82%) said yes.
Discussion and conclusions
This study was designed to examine differences in knowledge, attitudes and practices between prevention program participants and non-participants at a Zimbabwean university. Our findings indicate prevention programs must adequately address the cultural values, gender role beliefs and risk factor misconceptions that foster unsafe sexual decision-making in the 19- to 24-year-old age group.
This study represents the first evaluation of the differences in beliefs and behaviors between university-based participants and non-participants in a comprehensive HIV/AIDS prevention program in southern Africa and serves as a baseline assessment for future university-based program offerings. SHAPE programs had been conducted on the University of Zimbabwe campus for two years prior to the administration of this survey. A notable limitation of this study relates to our use of the peer survey interviewer method. To impress a peer, young men and women may overstate or understate their sexual beliefs and practices, however, this bias is likely to be equally present in both groups.
Because this is a descriptive study, we cannot draw cause and effect conclusions related to the effectiveness of our present SHAPE Zimbabwe education and peer counseling services. Still, our findings show marked differences between groups, many which may reflect the beliefs of young adults who self-select into SHAPE programs. Perhaps as likely, our results show many differences that could reasonably be deemed to relate to learnings from SHAPE. SHAPE members are different in knowledge and beliefs on numerous core prevention variables including being more likely than non-SHAPE members to report being sexually abstinent, having been tested for HIV, understanding the prevention benefits of condom use and having fewer sexual partners in the past year. Because SHAPE members are also significantly more likely to understand the contribution of less common prevention variables taught by the SHAPE program (the role of nevirapine, caesarian sections, privacy requirements in volunteer counseling and testing, use of female condoms) we can infer certain knowledge gains to be attributable to SHAPE programs.
There were several risk factors where it was surprising and disappointing to see no difference between groups. For those who have had sex, there were no significant differences between groups with respect to whether condoms were used last time they had sex even though SHAPE members are statistically more likely to know the value of condoms. Perhaps, as one experienced HIV prevention educator believes (personal communication, Tawanda Muzhingi, 2004), the most vulnerable couples are those who believe they know each other well enough to forgo condoms. With higher rates of monogamy, more HIV testing and more open discussion about HIV among SHAPE members, a sense of security and trust may explain some of the lack of difference between groups concerning condom use.
A consistent learning objective across SHAPE programs is to change attitudes about gender roles and empower both women and men to equitably share in sexual decision-making. Though we found differences between groups suggesting SHAPE may be increasing awareness concerning gender equity, there continue to be many intractable cultural attitudes in this age group. For example, men's beliefs of entitlement to dominate women and their assumed leadership in decision-making is reflected in our findings that, for both groups, when a woman says “no” to sex, more than one third of respondents say “it depends” as to whether it actually means “no”. SHAPE members are more likely to say “no” means “no” but it is not a statistically significant difference. On the other hand, SHAPE members are much less likely to say women who expect to share power with men are “radicals” which is a significant difference when compared to non-SHAPE respondents. Similarly, SHAPE members are much more likely to have seen a female condom which affirms our general impression that participants are less likely to acquiesce to stigma and stereotypes.
Confronting gender inequities and the dominant roles of males need to remain a primary focus for this age group in southern Africa.
24
, 25
Our findings show that members of our SHAPE programs believe in the merits of empowering women and have attitudes supportive of the need to advocate for equitable decision-making between men and women. We report elsewhere26
on the attitude differences between men and women, and others have noted that considerable work with men is needed to close the tremendous gap between genders with respect to readiness for sharing power.27
Leach F. The sugar daddy trap. Peer pressure pushes girls into sex. id21 Development Research; July 2001. Last accessed March 2004 at: http://www.id21.org/.
Results of this study have informed our SHAPE program planning. Our findings affirm our impression that there is still tremendous room for improving sexual decision-making attitudes and practices of both program participants and non-participants. We are planning new seminars with a particular focus on the role of men in changing the culture to embrace gender equity. We are also reviewing our recruitment protocols for our peer counselors with an emphasis on seeking men with an interest in learning about communication skills that increase shared decision-making.
Our examination of differences between program participants and non-participants suggests that there is a gap for both groups between knowledge of risk factors and the consistent practice of safer sex, and accordingly, much work remains in making HIV prevention a standard expectation between partners in this age group. Other investigators have noted that acceptance of the benefits of condoms and limiting partners has taken a long time and has varied considerably by age, education and other modifiable factors.
16
For example, condom use has been shown to decrease according to the level of education for women17
and years of schooling are a key factor predictive of knowledge about HIV prevention measures.28
Conversely, knowledge about risk is a key predictor of whether women choose partners who agree to safer sexual practices.29
, 30
A key challenge for HIV/AIDS prevention education programs will be to devise methods that evoke more rapid improvements in knowledge and attitudes concerning core practices such as condom use and limiting sexual partners. However, we will undoubtedly need to take a long view in confronting the cultural factors that affect young people and their ability to align what they know about safer sex with their cultural beliefs about gender and power.
Achieving greater effectiveness in prevention depends less on the content of our educational messages than on the process we use to engage young adults in changing their culture. Fortunately, the literature on peer counseling demonstrates that peers have a powerful influence on peers.
21
Our findings suggest that the attitudes and practices of young men and women are changing but progress in some areas does not assure progress in all areas. We will need to judge intervention programs as much for their comprehensiveness in addressing cultural barriers to behavior change as for their effectiveness in changing knowledge or attitudes related to condom use or limiting partners. More study is needed to understand the interaction between culture and gender on decision-making and risk factor reduction. Like the powerful influence of poverty or education on health-related decision-making, we will need to learn of the independent impact of cultural beliefs and gender roles if we are to allocate our limited resources wisely in addressing the AIDS pandemic.Acknowledgments
This study was supported, in part, by funding from the Health Literacy project of the Pfizer Foundation. The authors thank Sonya Painschab for editorial support, Penny Marsala and Nicole Reich for assistance with literature review and Betsy Kind and Laura Olevitch for manuscript reviews.
Conflict of interest: No conflict of interest to declare.
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Article info
Publication history
Accepted:
October 22,
2004
Received in revised form:
October 18,
2004
Received:
May 12,
2004
Corresponding Editor: Salim Abdool Karim, Durban, South AfricaIdentification
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© 2005 International Society for Infectious Diseases. Published by Elsevier Inc.
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