Infectious diseases have a profound impact on humans, particularly vulnerable populations (Fauci and Morens, 2012). The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) and a lack of effective treatment and non-pharmaceutical interventions to curb transmission have led to an exponential increase in the burden of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) worldwide (Hsiang et al., 2020; Kraemer et al., 2020; Bo et al., 2021).